geoengineering

Primary Contributor: Philip Boyd
 
geoengineering, the large-scale manipulation of a specific process central to controlling Earth’s climate for the purpose of obtaining a specific benefit. Global climate is controlled by the amount of solar radiation received by Earth and also by the fate of this energy within the Earth system that is, how much is absorbed by Earth’s surface and how much is reflected or reradiated back into space. The reflectance of solar radiation is controlled by several mechanisms, including Earth’s surface albedo and cloud coverage and the presence in the atmosphere of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂). If geoengineering proposals are to influence global climate in any meaningful way, they must intentionally alter the relative influence of one of these controlling mechanisms.

Geoengineering proposals were first developed in the middle of the 20th century. Relying on technologies developed during World War II, such proposals were designed to alter weather systems in order to obtain more favourable climate conditions on a regional scale. One of the best-known techniques is cloud seeding, a process that attempts to bring rain to parched farmland by dispersing particles of silver iodide or solid carbon dioxide into rain-bearing clouds. Cloud seeding has also been used in attempts to weaken tropical storms. In addition, the U.S. military suggested that nuclear weapons might be used as tools to alter regional climates and make certain areas of the world more favourable for human habitation. This proposal, however, was not tested.

Cloud seeding works on a regional scale, seeking to influence weather systems for the benefit of agriculture. Present-day geoengineering proposals have focused on the global scale, particularly as evidence has mounted of increasing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and thus the prospect of global warming. Two fundamentally different approaches to the problem of global climate change have arisen. The first approach proposes the use of technologies that would increase the reflectance of incoming solar radiation, thus reducing the heating effect of sunlight upon Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere. However, altering Earth’s heat budget by reflecting more sunlight back into space might offset rising temperatures but would do nothing to counter the rising concentration of CO₂ in Earth’s atmosphere. The second geoengineering approach focuses on this problem, proposing to remove CO₂ from the air and store it in areas where it cannot interact with Earth’s atmosphere. This approach is more appealing than the first because it has the potential to counteract both rising temperatures and rising carbon dioxide levels. In addition, reducing CO₂ in the air could address the problem of ocean acidification. Vast amounts of atmospheric CO₂ are taken up by the oceans and mixed with seawater to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃). As the amount of carbonic acid rises in the ocean, it lowers the pH of seawater. Such ocean acidification could result in damage to coral reefs and other calcareous organisms such as sea urchins. Reducing the concentration of CO₂ would slow and perhaps eventually halt the production of carbonic acid, which in turn would reduce ocean acidification.

To some scientists, global-scale geoengineering proposals border on science fiction. Geoengineering is also controversial because it aims to modify global climate a phenomenon that is not yet fully understood and cannot be altered without risk. In the popular press there have been reports that view geoengineering as the final option to thwart climate change if all other measures to reduce CO₂ emissions fail in the coming decades. Several studies advocate that rigorous testing should precede the implementation of any geoengineering proposal so that unintended consequences would be avoided. Each proposal described below would differ from the others in its potential efficiency, complexity, cost, safety considerations, and unknown effects on the planet, and all of them should be thoroughly evaluated before being implemented. Despite this, no proposed scheme has been purposefully tested, even as a small-scale pilot study, and hence the efficiency, cost, safety, or timescale of any scheme has never been evaluated.

Proposals to increase solar reflectance

Geoengineering schemes that could increase the reflectance of incoming solar radiation include the injection of sulfur particles into the stratosphere, the whitening of marine clouds, and the delivery of millions of tiny orbital mirrors or sunshades into space. It is important to note that a great deal of debate surrounds each of these schemes, and the feasibility of each one is difficult to ascertain. Clearly, their deployment at global scales would be difficult and expensive, and small-scale trials would reveal little about their potential effectiveness.

Stratospheric sulfur injection

The formation of an aerosol layer of sulfur in the stratosphere would increase the scattering of incoming solar radiation. As more radiation is scattered in the stratosphere by aerosols, less would be absorbed by the troposphere, the lower level of the atmosphere where weather primarily occurs. Proponents believe that sulfur injection essentially would mimic the atmospheric effects that follow volcanic eruptions. The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, often cited as the inspiration of this proposal, deposited massive amounts of particulate matter and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) into the atmosphere. This aerosol layer was reported to have lowered average temperatures around the world by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) over the following few years. To produce an artificial aerosol layer, sulfur particles would be shot into the stratosphere by cannons or dispersed from balloons or other aircraft.

Cloud whitening

The process of cloud whitening relies upon large-scale spraying devices mounted on oceangoing vessels. Such vessels would expel a mist of seawater droplets and dissolved salts to altitudes up to 300 metres (1,000 feet). As the water droplets evaporate, proponents believe, bright salt crystals would remain to reflect incoming solar radiation. Later these crystals would act as condensation nuclei and form new water droplets, which in turn would increase overall marine cloud coverage, reflecting even more incoming solar radiation into space.

Orbital mirrors and sunshades

This proposal involves the placement of several million small reflective objects beyond Earth’s atmosphere. It is thought that concentrated clusters of these objects could partially redirect or block incoming solar radiation. The objects would be launched from rockets and positioned at a stable Lagrangian point between the Sun and Earth. (Lagrangian points are locations in space at which a small body, under the gravitational influence of two large ones, will remain approximately at rest relative to them.) The premise is that as inbound solar radiation declines, there would be less energy available to heat Earth’s lower atmosphere. Thus, average global air temperatures would fall.

Carbon-removal proposals

The carbon-removal approach would extract CO₂ from other gases in the atmosphere by changing it into other forms of carbon (such as carbonate) through photosynthesis or artificial “scrubbing.” This separated carbon then would be either sequestered in biomass at the surface or transported away for storage in the ocean or underground. Several carbon-removal geoengineering schemes have been considered. These include carbon burial, ocean fertilization, biochar production, and scrubbing towers or “artificial trees.”

Carbon burial

Carbon burial, more commonly known as “carbon capture and storage,” involves the pumping of pressurized CO₂ into suitable geological structures (that is, with gas-tight upper layers to cap the buried carbon) deep underground or in the deep ocean (see carbon sequestration). The premise is that CO₂ generated from the combustion of fossil fuels could be separated from other industrial emissions before these emissions were released into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide could then be pumped through pipes into geological formations and stored for extended periods of time. The process of carbon burial requires the identification of many suitable sites followed by stringent leak-testing of individual sites. So far, injections of compressed CO₂ have been used to aid in the extraction of natural gas, such as in the Sleipner Vest field in the North Sea, and the United States Department of Energy has funded the construction of several carbon-storage sites. The carbon-burial process could also make use of carbon dioxide captured from the atmosphere using scrubbers (see below Scrubbers and artificial trees).

Ocean fertilization

Ocean fertilization would increase the uptake of CO₂ from the air by phytoplankton, microscopic plants that reside at or near the surface of the ocean. The premise is that the phytoplankton, after blooming, would die and sink to the ocean floor, taking with them the CO₂ that they had photosynthesized into new tissues. Although some of the material that sank would be returned to the surface through the process of upwelling, it is thought that a small but significant proportion of the carbon would remain on the ocean floor and become stored as sedimentary rock.

Ocean fertilization, which some scientists refer to as bio-geoengineering, would involve dissolving iron or nitrates into the surface waters of specific ocean regions to promote the growth of phytoplankton where primary productivity is low. For the scheme to be effective, it is thought that a sustained effort would be required from a fleet of vessels covering most of the ocean. Many authorities maintain that this scheme would take decades to unfold.

Biochar production

The production of biochar, a type of charcoal made from animal wastes and plant residues (such as wood chips, leaves, and husks), can sequester carbon by circumventing the normal decomposition process or acting as a fertilizer to enhance the sequestration rate of growing biomass. Normally, as organic material decomposes, the microbes breaking it down use oxygen and release CO₂. If, however, the material were “cooked” in the absence of oxygen, it would decompose rapidly through pyrolysis. Little or no CO₂ would be released, and the bulk of the organic material would harden into a kind of porous charcoal, essentially sequestering the carbon as a solid. Biochar mixed with soils might serve as a fertilizer, thus further increasing the carbon sequestration potential of plants growing in the soil. Some environmentalists see biochar as a breakthrough in carbon-sequestration technology, but its ability to reduce CO₂ concentrations at global scales is a matter of some debate. In addition, some scientists see problems in ramping up the biochar production process to global scales, since farmers would have to decide between making charcoal for fertilizer or burning plant residue in cooking fires.

Scrubbers and artificial trees

Another form of carbon capture would involve the use of scrubbing towers and so-called artificial trees. In the scrubbing tower method, air would be funneled into a large, confined space within the towers by wind-driven turbines. As the air is taken in, it would be sprayed with one of several chemical compounds, such as sodium hydroxide or calcium hydroxide. These chemicals would react with the CO₂ in the air to form carbonate precipitates and water, and these by-products could then be piped to safe storage locations. In contrast, artificial trees essentially would be a series of sticky, resin-covered filters that would convert captured CO₂ to a carbonate called soda ash. Periodically, the soda ash would be washed off the filters and collected for storage.

So far, several prototypes of each method have been built. Most scientists argue that an enormous number of scrubbing towers and artificial trees would be needed to counteract rising atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations at global scales.